Pest description:

• False codling moth (FCM), Thaumatotibia (=Cryptophlebia) leucotreta.
• An Important pest of citrus throughout southern Africa and a phytosanitary pest of avocados.
• Also infests guava, macadamia, pecan, avocado, litchi, vines and many other cultivated and wild fruits.
• Eggs small, flattened, and normally laid singly on or near fruit.
• Larvae creamy white at first, with a brownish black head.
  • The fully grown larva has a dark brown head and pinkish red body, with less intense colour on the underside.
  • Larvae grow to a length of 15-20 mm.
  • There are 5 larval instars.
  • Larvae pupate near the soil surface or beneath leaf litter.
• The adult moth is relatively small, about 10 mm long when at rest, inconspicuously mottled brownish grey in colour, and nocturnal.

Suggested scout methods:

• Scout for pest damage and with pheromone traps.
• ‘Hass’, ‘Pinkerton’, and ‘Edranol’ are more susceptible to FCM than other cultivars and should be scouted more intensely
• FCM typically flies in the top third of the tree so hang traps there but inside the canopy where they are shaded from direct sunlight so that the pheromone does not degrade prematurely
• Larval damage is characterized by white, powdery sap surrounding a small hole. As larvae develop, larvae excrete granular frass (excrement) that is pushed out the hole.
• Traps for FCM include: 1) Chempac Yellow Delta Traps and Chempac False Codling Moth Lure, or 2) Insect Science Yellow Delta Traps and FCM PheroLure^®.
  • Traps should be placed at a frequency of 1 trap per 4 hectares at a height of approximately 2 m above ground in the shaded area of a tree.
  • The maximum trap attraction radius is approximately 15m
  • Begin trapping in October and continue until harvest is completed.
  • If 10 or more moths are recorded in a trap in a week then control measures should be initiated or intensified.
  • Replace the sticky card when it is no longer sticky.

Control options:

• MRL’s
• In situations of high pressure there is no single control measure that will control FCM to a desirable degree, so it is critical to understand that FCM control is dependent on a multidisciplinary approach to be effective and least disruptive to natural enemies.
  1. Monitor for FCM in your orchards.
  2. When necessary, use registered chemicals to control population levels at the correct time (critical).
  3. Do orchard sanitation. Larvae can complete their life-cycle in soft, rotting fallen fruit so remove and destroy these. If the infested fruit is placed in a pile or dump, ensure it is covered or buried. If destroying it using a hammermill, use a high-intensity grinding hammermill as this will reduce the chances of survival.
  4. Keep accurate records of monitoring, sanitation and chemical treatments.

Pest description:

• Four indigenous fruit fly species of the genus Ceratitis (C. capitata, C. cosyra, C. rosa, C. quilicii) are of economic importance for the production of fruit crops in South Africa.
• The invasive fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (previously Bactrocera invadens) or Oriental fruit fly, is very important for phytosanitary reasons.

Damage:

• Avocado is generally a poor host for fruit flies.
• ‘Hass’ is a conditional non-host for C. capitata and a poor potential host for C. cosyra and C. rosa.
• Mature, undamaged ‘Hass’, ‘Fuerte’ and ‘Pinkerton’ fruit have very low susceptibility to Oriental fruit fly.
• Successful development can occur in damaged or compromised fruit.
• Damage on the fruit is similar to FCM: a tiny hole surrounded by white, sugary exudate. However, as the fruit sizes, this lesion dries, cracks, and transforms into a highly distinct star-shaped crack on the fruit skin surface.

Control options:

• Do not only rely on trap catches – scouts must still check fruit for damage.
• There are two types of traps registered for monitoring Bd, with the main difference being the frequency with which they are placed. The two types are Chempac Bucket Traps with Chempac ME Lure and a Vapona (dichlorvos) strip, and Lynfield Traps with Invader-Lure^TM and a Vapona (dichlorvos) strip.
  • For both types, hang traps at 1.5 m above ground in the canopy of the tree on the shady, south-eastern side.
  • Trapping should continue throughout the year.
  • If 1 or more Oriental fruit flies are recorded in a trap in a week then control measures should be initiated or intensified.
  • Several areas are considered pest free areas for Bd. In areas considered free from this pest, Chempac Bucket Traps with Chempac ME Lure and a Vapona (dichlorvos) strip each should be placed at a frequency of 1 trap per 100 hectares, with at least 1 trap per PUC. Lynfield Traps with Invader-Lure^TM and a Vapona (dichlorvos) strip each should be placed at a frequency of 1 trap per 10 000 hectares, also with at least 1 trap per PUC. Traps should be placed in areas where infestation is likely to occur e.g. dumps where fruit waste is discarded or human dwelling places. If a tree is not available for a trap to be hung in, a pole can be set up instead.
    • Detection of Bd in a pest free area has regulatory implications. Contact your region’s SAAGA horticulturist so that the issue can be escalated.
  • In areas not free from Bd, Chempac Bucket Traps with Chempac ME Lure and a Vapona (dichlorvos) strip each should be placed at a frequency of 1 trap per 5 hectares. Lynfield Traps with Invader-Lure^TM and a Vapona (dichlorvos) strip each should be placed at a frequency of 1 trap per 25 hectares.
  • In areas where Bd is present, baiting should be done using GF-120 or M3 bait stations. Baiting should be done in combination with the placing of MAT (Male Annihilation Technique) blocks.
• Traps for other fruit fly species (Ceratitis spp.) include McPhail Type Traps with Chempac BioLure^® Fruit Fly. Traps should be placed at a frequency of 1 trap per 2 hectares. Trapping should begin after flowering and continue until harvest. If 7 or more fruit flies are recorded in a trap in a week then control measures should be initiated or intensified.
• If trapping in the same block for both Bd and Ceratitis spp., ensure that traps are at last 3 trees apart.
• In orchards where trapping for Bd, remove the following plant species that produce eugenol or methyl eugenol and thereby decrease the efficacy of Bd traps: Melaleuca bracteata (Johannesburg Gold / Black Tea Tree), Ocimum gratissimum (African Basil / Clove Basil), Eucalyptus species (Gum trees), Ocimum basilicum & Ocimum tenuiflorum (Sweet Basil / Holy Basil), and Syzygium aromaticum (Clove tree). Also remove Psidium guajava (wild guava) as it is a strong host for Bd.
• MRLs

Suggested program:

• Remove mature, fallen fruit from the orchard floor to break the breeding cycle. If the infested fruit is placed in a pile or dump, ensure it is covered or buried. If destroying it using a hammermill, use a high-intensity grinding hammermill as this will reduce the chances of survival.
• Larvae spend about 10-25 days feeding inside fruit before boring their way out, and then pupate in the top 2-5 cm of soil. If dropped fruit contains empty, smooth exit holes, larvae have likely entered the soil. An entomopathogenic product containing Metarhizium could be applied to help kill larvae.
• Use attract and kill methods to control fruit flies (baiting)
• Use combinations when applying control measures e.g., Last Call + GF120 / Last Call + attractant

Bactrocera dorsalis Status in Production Areas:

Fruit Fly & Damage on Fruit

Fruit Fly Traps

Supporting documents:

• Bd: procedure to apply for new or expired Bd Removal Permit (2026 – for removal of fruit from areas infested by Bd to non-infested areas), application form (2026), application to open account (2025)
• Government Regulations: Amendment of Control Measures – November 2017
• Monitoring form (xlsx)

Pest description:

Pseudotheraptus wayi 

• Size: ±15 mm in length and ±4 mm in width.
• Reddish-brown, ventral side of an adult is creamy whitish-brown without stippling.
• Long slender antennae.
• No spiny protuberances on thorax.
• Female lays an average of 80 eggs in total during her life cycle and the cycle from egg to adult lasts 31-48 days.
• Five nymphal stages.
• Eggs laid singly on fruit, twigs, and flower stems.
• The adult life-span ranges from 73-84 days.
• Damage on fruit usually seen towards the end of the season. Both larvae and adults feed on fruit.
• Damage is limited to a single tree or a few trees in close proximity of each other.
• Highly mobile, polyphagous.

Damage:

• Feeding sites appear water-soaked or darker than the surrounding peel. Lesions become brown then black, necrotic, sunken or crater-like, and can develop cracks or raised wart-like tissue. Young fruit can become malformed or abort.
• Fruit remain susceptible beyond early fruit set. Damage can occur during mid- and late-season fruit development.

Suggested scout methods:

• Scout weekly from fruit set through fruit development and record both whether coconut bugs are present and any coconut bug damage observed. ‘Pinkerton’ and ‘Fuerte’ are preferred cultivars.
• Coconut bugs are more likely to be concentrated in low-lying riverine areas, valley floors, and blocks adjacent to natural bush or macadamia orchards. Scouting routes must prioritize these specific border trees rather than the centre of the block.
• To catch live specimens for confirmation, scouts should conduct “shake monitoring” in the early morning only: when temperatures are low, the bugs are sluggish and will drop directly onto ground sheets instead of flying away.
• Scout ± 10 trees/ha and multiple fruit at each tree where possible. Coconut bugs occur in localised hot spots but are highly mobile.
• Note that adults are strong fliers, blend into the upper canopy, and disperse instantly when approached.
• Check fruit in the upper canopy especially in large, dense trees.
• Coconut bugs have long mouthparts like other plant-feeding sucking bugs.
• Fruit can have horizontal cuts.
• Damage is only visible long after coconut bug feeding, but this may indicate hot-spots in the orchard for future pest monitoring.
• Slice open the skin of aborted green fruit. If internal water-soaked lesions, necrotic depressions, or hard lumps in the flesh are present, coconut bug is active even if no live insects are spotted.

Management:

• Prune to maintain an open, manageable canopy and tree height. This makes scouting easier and maximizes efficacy of pesticide applications.
• Attract and conserve predators, parasitoids, and other natural enemies.
• Control doing spot sprays where pest damage on fruit are evident and coconut bugs are observed.

Fruit Damage caused by Coconut Bug:

Coconut Bug Images:

Pest description:

• Small to medium bugs, green or brown in colour.
• These include small mirid bugs such as avocado bug (Taylorilygus spp.) and citrus leafhopper (Penthimiola bella), and larger bugs such as Anolcus campestris and Coenomorpha nervosa.
• The avocado bug (Tayloryligus sp., Family Miridae) is the dominant sucking bug, brown to black in colour, and is very small – up to 3 mm long.
  • Adults and nymphs occur mainly during flowering and early fruit development.
  • Feeding on young fruit causes internal lesions and characteristic raised bumps (“vosknoppe”) which may only become visible several weeks after feeding.
• Larger bugs: feeding causes internal brown lesions, depressions on the fruit surface, bumps, cracking, fruit malformation, and occasionally premature fruit drop.  
• Avocado fruits <30 mm in diameter are most susceptible to damage
• Sucking bugs are predominantly nectar feeders
• Sucking bug mouthparts are both sucking and piercing which enables the bugs to not only penetrate plant tissues, but also feed (suck) on the nectar of the flowers

Suggested scout methods:

• Scout for insects or damage symptoms in a M or W route through an orchard block
• Sucking bugs are often unevenly distributed so scout throughout the block and pay particular attention to known historical hot spots and areas adjoining alternative host plants.
• Scout 10 trees per block, 10 panicles per tree
• Include the upper canopy and internal parts of large trees when practical.
• During flowering and early fruit set, inspect flower panicles/inflorescences and young fruit for avocado bugs and other small sucking insects.
• Continue scouting fruitlets and developing fruit throughout the season for larger sucking bugs. Be sure to also check for feeding damage.
  • Fruit are most susceptible when fruit diameter is smaller than 30 mm. Fruit maturity also plays a role in rendering fruit susceptible: Schalk Schoeman found that in Pinkerton this threshold was when fruit reaches a dry matter content of 13%/moisture content of 87%.
• Record insects and fruit damage separately. When unusual bugs are encountered, retain specimens or photographs for identification.
• Plant-feeding sucking bugs have long mouthparts that extend to their second set of legs or even their whole body
• Thresholds-
  • On year: > 13 avocado bugs / block
  • Off year: > 7 avocado bugs / block

Control options:

• MRL’s

Other possible control mechanisms:

• Use canopy management and pruning to increase light penetration, which will also allow for better spray penetration.
• Consider removing any plants of Ricinus communis (Castor oil bush) as it acts as an overwintering host for sucking bugs.
• Leguminous cover crops can act as possible alternate hosts. Avoid planting legume vegetables such as soya beans, or other vegetables such as potatoes or tomatoes adjacent to an orchard as this will allow for seasonal migrations into orchards.
• Consider planting covers such as marigolds, onions/garlic that might repel bugs. See this article and table for lists.
• A biological control agent – Green Shield (the parasitic wasp Trissolcus basalis) – is available from Koppert.
  • Compatibility with other control agents has been determined independently; wait 4 weeks or longer after applying Acephate, Bifenthrin, and/or Beta-cyfluthrin to introduce the wasp.
  • The wasp is compatible with Pymetrozine and Spirotetramat.
  • For compatibility with other control agents, please contact Koppert or your regional horticulturist.
  • Note that Trissolcus basalis is not registered on South African avocados.

Other ongoing actions:

• Registration of products with actives Neem oil, Potassium silicate, and Lambda cyhalothrin. Several dossiers are on the desk of the Registrar of Act 36 of 1947.
• Kairomones: Work is underway by Schalk Schoeman to trap sucking bugs
• Biocontrols: egg wasp parasitoids Anastatus sp. and Trissolcus sp.
• Sucking bugs continue to be raised as an issue at the Subtrop Plant Protection Products Forum.

Supportive Documents:

• Coconut Bug Factsheet

What to look out for:

Avocado bug (Tayloryligus sp.)
(up to 3 mm long)

Avocado bug (Tayloryligus sp.)
(up to 3 mm long)

Brown stinkbug (Coenomorpha nervosa)
(up to 14 mm long)

Tip Wilter (Anoplocnemis curvipes)
(up to 25 mm long)

Citrus leafhopper (Penthimiola bella)
(up to 4 mm long)

Powdery/woolly stinkbug (Atelocera raptoria)
(up to 17 mm long)

Green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula)
(up to 13 mm long)

Pest description:

• Minute insects about 1 mm in length with four narrow fringed wings.
• Immature stages and adults hide under the fruit calyx.
• Feed by rasping the plant surface causing small silver blotches.
• The main pest species is the South African citrus thrips (Scirtothrips aurantii).
  • Other thrips species known to infest avocados – greenhouse/black tea thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis) and red-banded thrips (Selenothrips rubrocinctus) – are likely sporadic.

Damage:

• Thrips feed on young avocado fruit and flush.
• Feeding on fruit results in brown, corky, or russet-like scarring which reduces fruit marketability and packouts.
• Damage frequently starts around the calyx and can enlarge as the fruit grows.
• Scarring on fruit does not necessarily confirm thrips infestation, as damage due to wind can also produce similar superficial corky lesions. Therefore confirm the presence of thrips, especially larvae, before deciding on control.

Suggested scout methods:

• ‘Pinkerton’ and ‘Carmen Hass’ are particularly attacked by thrips. Also scout ‘Fuerte’ fruit.
• Begin weekly monitoring for thrips during flowering and continue through fruit set and early fruit development. Do not wait for visible fruit scarring to appear – this is too late.
• Scout 10 trees per block on all 4 sides. Also scout the edges especially if there is a macadamia block adjacent or in close proximity.
• Scout on the fruit, especially at the northern side and under the calyx – use a paperclip to lift the calyx. Try to scout at least 100 fruit/fruitlets.
• To count thrips present, take an inflorescence and strike or beat it 5 times against clear white paper to dislodge thrips present then count the yellow tiny thrips (not flowers) present
• Scouts should report on yellow thrips observed, not black thrips
• Suggested threshold: 4 thrips / fruit
• Although yellow sticky traps can be used for monitoring, it is advised against as identification of individuals will be difficult.

Control options:

• Before deciding on what to use, first check what your losses are due to thrips damage. Watch Dr. Elsje Joubert’s presentation on this as a guide.
• Consider planting Casuarina spp. or Corymbia (= Eucalyptus) torelliana trees as windbreaks, establishing an interrow cover crop and minimizing mowing thereof. These practices have helped citrus growers control thrips.
• Cover crops that can be planted and will reduce thrips incidence and damage include Medicago sativa (lucerne), Lotus corniculatus (Bird’s-foot trefoil), Trifolium pratense (Red clover), Melilotus alba (White sweetclover), and Phacelia tanacetifolia (Lacy phacelia) (see Nengovhela’s thesis – 2020). These attract generalist predators/beneficials into orchards. See also this article and table for a list of cover crops.
• Consider removing the following plant species from orchards as these are known hosts of South African citrus thrips: Grevillea robusta (silky oak), Vachellia and Senegalia species (formerly Acacia, particularly the Sweet Thorn (Vachellia karroo), Combretum species (Bushwillows), Dichrostachys cinerea (Sicklebush), Bauhinia galpinii (Pride of De Kaap), Kalanchoe delagoensis (Mother of Millions / Chandelier Plant), Ricinus communis (castor oil plant), Gloriosa superba (Flame Lily), Asparagus species,
  Musa x paradisiaca (Banana)
• Known repellents of thrips are Neem oil / Azadirachtin and garlic extracts.
• Consider making and deploying straw sleeves to house predatory mites that will attack and feed on thrips.
• MRLs

Other ongoing actions:

• Since thrips migrate, do area-wide control
• Although degree day models have been investigated, thrips often have multiple overlapping lifecycles within a season meaning that a degree day model to predict when control agents (chemical and/or biocontrols) can be implemented, will not have value.
• Other control options including attract-and-kill products and entomopathogenic nematodes (including Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and Steinernema spp.) will be raised with chemical and biological control companies.

What to look out for:

 

Pest description:

• Euwallacea fornicatus, also known as the polyphagous shot hole borer (PSHB), is a very small invasive ambrosia beetle associated with the pathogenic fungus Fusarium euwallaceae.
• Adult female beetles bore into trunks and branches and introduce the fungus into galleries in the wood. The fungus grows within the galleries as a food source for the beetles and larvae, but can also invade avocado vascular tissue, causing Fusarium dieback.
• Avocado is a reproductive host of PSHB in South Africa, meaning the beetle can establish breeding galleries and reproduce in avocado trees.
• Female beetles are black and ± 1.8-2.5 mm long. Males are smaller, brown, and ± 1.5 mm long. Entry and exit holes are very small – ± 0.85 mm in diameter. Beetles are therefore very difficult to detect during routine scouting.

Symptoms:

• Typical symptoms on avocado include:
  • Very small round entry or exit holes on trunks and branches.
  • White sugary exudate surrounding the beetle hole.
  • Fine frass associated with the entry hole.
  • Wet or dark discoloration around the hole.
  • Brown, necrotic discoloration beneath the bark and within the wood.
  • Branch wilting and dieback and, in severe cases, decline or death of the tree.
• The presence of exudate alone does not confirm PSHB. Check for the small entry hole and gallery. Suspicious samples can be submitted for identification and confirmation – details are below.

• Check trunks and main branches regularly for small entry holes, white sugary exudate, frass, wet staining, or localised bark discoloration.
• Pay particular attention to trees showing sudden branch wilt, branch dieback, or unexplained decline.
• Where a suspicious entry hole is found, carefully remove a small section of bark around the hole.
  • Brown necrotic tissue beneath the bark and a gallery entering the wood could signal PSHB, although the beetle itself may not always be present in the gallery.
  • Check the entry hole to expose the underlying canker and follow the gallery when investigating a suspected infestation.
• Suspect infestations should be confirmed by a lab as PSHB is extremely small and other ambrosia beetles also occur in South African avocado orchards.
• There is an ongoing trapping project where traps have been placed at selected farms in every production region. Contact your region’s SAAGA horticulturist if you also want to participate in the trapping project.

Control options:

• Early detection and sanitation are the most important intervention measures.
• Cut the tree if the pest is noticed and burn infected wood. Be advised that individuals of the pest are small enough to survive if the wood is chipped.
• Avoid moving infested material between orchards and sterilize tools with household bleach before using on other trees.
• Monitor neighbouring avocado trees and alternative hosts to confirm infestation.
• While there are no chemicals registered on avocados specifically against PSHB; Abamectin (thrips), Acephate (fruit sucking bug complex), Chlorantraniliprole (false codling moth), and Beta-cyfluthrin (fruit sucking bug complex) are known to control the pest in other parts of the world.
• Remove any Ricinus communis (castor bean) plants as these are highly highly preferred reproductive hosts for PSHB.
• Contact your region’s SAAGA horticulturist to inform him/her of the beetle’s presence.

More information:

• Fact sheet – Ambrosia beetle & fusarium wilt

Sample submission
Send samples to the following address:
Attention: Dr. Lieschen De Vos
FABI Diagnostic Clinic
FABI
University of Pretoria
Lunnon Road
Hillcrest
Pretoria, 0083

Tel: 012 420 3938, 012 420 5826
Email: diagnostic.clinic@fabi.up.ac.za

There is a dedicated page on PSHB at the FABI website, along with FAQs on the pest. Please visit https://fabinet.up.ac.za/research-groups/pshb-research-network.
Please contact the Diagnostic Clinic before posting, sending or couriering any living beetles. These insects can eat through paper and plastic!
Please follow the sample instructions
Please download, fill in and include relevant details in the sample submission form

Pest description:

• Caterpillars of citrus looper, Ascotis reciprocaria (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)
• Five larval stages occur: younger larvae are a few mm long, mature larvae reach approximately 50 mm resembling grey brown twigs.
• Young larvae feed mainly on tender flush while older larvae feed on fruit.
• Young larvae can graze the fruit skin while feeding by older larvae results in sunken lesions that extend into the flesh.
• Damage can easily be confused with wind damage. Unlike leaf rollers, loopers do not spin webs to keep leaves or fruit together.
• Adults are nocturnal grey white moths with brown markings and a wingspan of 45–48 mm.
• Eggs are laid in concealed places – beneath loose bark or in cracks in dead twigs.
• Larvae pupate amongst leaf litter.
• Severe leaf damage can lead to defoliation